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Woman, Why Art Thou Marked? According to some, the history of feminism consists of three waves: “The //**first wave**// refers to that of the nineteenth through early twentieth centuries, which dealt mainly with the Suffrage movement. The **//second wave (1960s-1980s//)** attempted to right legal and cultural inequalities. The // **third wave (1990’s-present)** // is seen as both a continuation and a response to the perceived failures of the second wave.” (Wikipedia) As a result, feminist theory emerged as an extension of feminism which is comprised of many forms, disciplines, ideologies and themes of the feminist theory. (Wikipedia) Themes explored include discrimination, stereotyping, objectification (especially sexual objectification), oppression, and patriarchy. (Wikipedia) A book titled //**Ways of Seeing, by John Berger,**// deals with these very issues of gender inequalities and common stereotypes of male vs. female. Berger’s Ways of Seeing mainly focuses on women being exploited in paintings and photographs from the early 1500s up until the mid 70s. **Berger also uses psychoanalytical reasoning to describe why some of these inequalities are present amongst male and female. The main topic in Berger’s Way’s of Seeing, is women being portrayed as objects in visual art. Before, women in paintings during the 1500s were simply painted for the enjoyment of men as demonstrated in Figure 1. Now, the female form is being used not only to be pleasing to the eye, but as a means to sell products and set a certain standard as to how all women are supposed to look. Although the feminist movement has done much in exposing the dehumanization of women in photos and every day life, in many ways not much has changed in the way women are depicted in magazines and mass advertisement.** (see Figures 2 and 3) As a result, the feminist movement must continue to seek to revalue the roles of women due to gender inequalities and objectification displayed by mass media advertisement in corporateAmerica. // Fig 2 Vanity by Memling Fig 3. Victoria Secret //
 * WELCOME TO MS. CLISBY'S WIKI. ENJOY! **
 * // Fig. 1 The Judgement of Paris by Rubens // ||



In the third chapter of John Berger’s “Ways of Seeing”, he focuses on the exploitation of women in photos and paintings in particular. He begins this chapter by explaining the difference between male and female presence. **Berger argues that”men act, while women appear” (Berger 47). He later explains this as meaning: “Men look at women. Women watch themselves being looked at”** (Berger 47). This relationship between the male and female introduces two terms which Berger uses in this chapter; The Surveyed and the Surveyor. The “Surveyed” is the female form or body because she is put on display for the male to enjoy. The “Surveyor” is the male  || because he gazes upon the female for his own personal pleasures (see Figure 4). It is important to make this clear distinction of surveyor vs. surveyed to get a clearer picture of who has the dominant role. Men are theoretically always considered to be the dominant figure and thus he becomes somewhat of a predator, seeking out his prey. (Figure 5) media type="youtube" key="u72AIab-Gdc" height="349" width="425" Berger dates back to the earliest record of creation to give an account as to why this gender inequality is present between the male and female. The story of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden is the first known record of women being subservient to men. After Eve had eaten from the forbidden tree, God punished her by saying that she now would be a servant to man. Berger seems to argue that this is the exact moment that the woman becomes what Rob Pope defines as “marked” (Pope 119). Pope describes the difference between marked and unmarked by relating it to feminine and masculine terminology. He points out that many feminine terms are followed be negative connotations while some masculine terms are considered to be more positive. Berger gives these examples by saying: “Examples of masculine as positive and feminine as negative are ‘master’ (cf. ‘mistress’); ‘dog’ (cf. ‘bitch’), as well as a motley host of words for genitalia: cock (cf. cunt); chest (cf. tit), etc.” (Pope 119) These are just a few commonly used terms that distinguish male vs. female. The female is considered weak // Fig. 6 // || while the male is viewed as powerful and the more dominant of the two (see figure 6). The terms and common stereotypes that Pope and Berger bring up are still being used today to objectify women in advertisement. In an interesting article on a website called gender ads by Dr. Scott A. Lukas they use the term “Dual Objectification” to say that both men and women are now being exploited in advertisement in an effort to sell a particular product. He asked these questions: 1)”Is the objectification of men becoming more common in advertising?” (2) “Are there any differences between how men and women are objectified in ads? Discuss the basis of those differences.” (3) “Do you believe that because men also see themselves as victims of the negativities of advertising that there will be more focus on addressing the issues of gender and advertising?” (Lukas) To begin answering these questions, it is crucial to examine a picture where they claim this “dual objectification” is taking place. For example as seen in Figure 7, the Gravity fragrance for men  ad shows two people, male and female both in engaged in what seems to be an intimate moment. However, look at the difference in body positioning between the man and the woman. The man in this ad takes on the dominant role because he is hovering over her while she submissively lays back and allows him to have her. It should also be pointed out that the female is wearing light colors, and is more centered by the camera making her the main focal point. Laura Mulvey further refutes this claim of male objectification in her classic essay ‘Visual pleasure and narrative cinema’, by saying; “ A male movie star’s glamorous characteristics are thus not those of the erotic object of the gaze, but those of the more perfect, more complete, more powerful ideal ego…”(Jones 48). “ Mulvey argued that cinematic pleasure was constructed in such a way as to reassure male subjects of their integrity in the face of sexual difference.” (Andermahr, Lovell, Wolkowitz 83) One of the ways women are objectified in advertisement is through what is called the “male gaze.” Briefly, this term can be defined as the way men look upon women as objects rather than humans. The defining characteristic of the male gaze is that the audience is forced to regard the actions and characters of a text through the perspective of a man; “the camera focuses || on the curves of the female body, (Figure 8) and events which occur to women are presented largely in the context of a man's reaction to these events.” (Wikipedia) This picture of actress Stacey Dash was featured on the front page of this men’s magazine titled King. The camera has put emphasis on her curves and it seems to have enhanced her posterior making it the main focus of he picture. Her body has become a display and that is evident even by the way she places her hands on hips to help accentuate her womanly form. She looks back directly at the camera as if to openly welcome her surveyor and with inviting eyes, she encourages the gazer to continue looking. “The male gaze denies women agency, relegating them to the status of objects. The male gaze in relation to the feminist theory presents an asymmetrical gaze as a means of exhibiting an unequal power relationship; that is, the male imposes an unwanted gaze upon the female.” (Pope) As seen in Figure 9 of this advertisement for women’s panty hose, the woman is walking down a street in a short dress that displays her long legs and the panty hose. What is most shocking about this picture is the man standing back off in the distance looking at her as she walks. The woman invites the gaze from the front by looking directly back at the camera, but at the same time she is still being watched by the other man. Whether we realize it or not, we have all come into contact with this phenomenon. For example, this phenomenon is exemplified in movies, advertisement, commercials and many other media outlets where women are being objectified in order to sell something or just for pure pleasure. That is why it is imperative that socialist feminists continue to work to make these gender inequalities known so that we as consumers can be less swayed or tricked by the tactics used in mass media. Additionally, some manufacturers play on the fact (psyche) that many women are uncomfortable with their bodies, so they show this perfect model figure and say that “this is how you are supposed to look.” When in reality only a small percentage of women actually look like the women shown in magazines and mass advertisements. As a matter of fact, the women often shown in these photos do not really look that way in real life. In today’s high technological world, with the latest in || digital editing, you can create an image of a female body flawless, but that is not humanly possible. In Figure 10 from Victoria Secrets “Very Sexy” collection for example: The woman in this picture is what Victoria Secret has defined as being “very sexy.” This is the image that women try to live up to so that they too can be gazed upon in this same way. We as consumers are lured into believing that the models in these photos are perfect and the true definition of beauty. Consequently, the consumer is convinced to buy this particular brand in an effort to be just as beautiful as the model in the picture. This male gaze and its relation to the feminist theory is not a new concept. By taking a look back at some older photos from the 50s in comparison to today’s advertisement, you can see that not much has changed in the way men at women. (Figures 11 and 12) Women in articles during the fifties were usually shown for the most part, fully covered with a very classy and reserved look about her. These women represented the typical (according to Western culture) woman, a house wife/soccer mom type. //. // || These women were not captured as powerful beings, but rather as people whose only purpose was to take care of home and the children. (Figure 13) These women were not seen as intellectual beings as their male counterparts; consequently, they were usually painted or photographed with their mouths closed or even sometimes with a hand covering it. (Figure 14) The fact that some of these women were shown covering their mouths, demonstrates the general feelings towards women during this time. These photos symbolically represent the || notion that women were better off seen and not heard. This further exemplifies how women were viewed as objects of the male gaze. They were not given a voice and their sole purpose was to be aesthetically pleasing to the male viewers. Consequently, to be viewed only as an object and someone to bare children and serve a man is not only oppressive, but demoralizing. Comparatively, however in Figure 15, the caption of this toothpaste ad reads: “This woman tells a lie every time she opens her mouth”. In this picture it is the actual words and language used to describe this woman that makes it demoralizing. This statement suggests that women should not speak because if she does what comes out of her mouth will || be a lie. Socialist feminism connects the oppression of women to Marxistideas about exploitation,oppression and labor. Marx felt that when class oppression was overcome, gender oppression // Figure 16 // || would vanish as well. I particularly agree with Marx because I feel that as long as there is a clear distinction between classes (i.e. rich vs. poor) there will always be inequalities present. These inequalities tend to naturally spill over into gender inequalities in a largely patriarchal society. Marx views the body as commodity. A commodity can be defined something that people value or find useful.The female body is closely related to this concept because it is often used to sell a product or to gain the attention of a particular audience. For example, in many advertisements such as the one shown in Figure 16, the female body is equated to the product being advertised and the viewer is more inclined to buy the product because they are really attracted to the beautiful woman being shown. This concept can be better understood by labeling it with the more modern quote: “sex sells.” Although much has changed in advertisement since the 50s, there are still very prevalent inequalities and the abuse of female sexuality present. By tracing the male gaze from earlier years in history to present day, we can see that men still are being presented as the dominate figure in photos as well as television. Most importantly, we should realize that women are both the victims and sometimes the reason why the gaze is still an issue today. Because this image of a perfect woman is beaten into their heads, females strive to become that “perfect woman” and consequently continue the cycle of inequality. Consequently, by revaluing the patriarchal views of women, we will not only change the way men view women, it will also help to reshape how many women view themselves. media type="youtube" key="XklmISebfHw" height="349" width="425" **FAMOUS FEMINIST**
 * // Fig. 4 Reclining Bacchante by Trutat //
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 * **//Adams, Abigail//** (1744-1818). Adams was a prolific writer, patriot, abolitionist, and early feminist. In her famous correspondence to her husband, she spoke eloquently against slavery, many years before the abolitionist movement, and on behalf of women.
 * //**Anthony, Susan B.**// 1820-1906. American suffragist. Anthony worked tirelessly for the woman suffrage movement. She lectured on women's rights and organized a series of state and national conventions on the issue. She collected signatures for a petition to grant women the right to vote and to own property. During the Civil War Anthony worked toward the emancipation of the slaves. In 1863 she helped form the Women's Loyal League, which supported U.S. president Abraham Lincoln's policies. She registered to vote in Rochester, New York, on November 1, 1872. Four days later, she and fifteen other women voted in the presidential election. All sixteen women were arrested three weeks later, but only Anthony was brought before a court. Between 1881 and 1886, she and Stanton published three volumes of the History of Woman Suffrage, a collection of writings about the movement's struggle.
 * //**Chicago, Judy**// (born 1939). Artist. Born Judy Cohen in Chicago, IL. She helped found the Feminist Studio Workshop in Los Angeles. Most famous for the unusual, large exhibition called `The Dinner Party' in the late 1970s.
 * //**Chopin, Kate**// (1851-1904). Writer. Born in St. Louis, Mo. Regular contributor of feminist short stories to literary journals. Her novel `The Awakening' (1899) shocked many people with its portrayal of a young woman's sexual and artistic longings.
 * **//Collins, Martha Layne//** (born 1963) Kentucky's first female governor and first woman to chair the National Conference of Lieutenant Governors.
 * //**Truth, Sojourner**// (1797-1883). Born a slave in New York, Sojourner Turth was orginally called Isabella Van Wagner. She gained her freedom in 1827, after most of her thirteen children had been sold. She took the name "Sojourner Truth" in 1843 after having a vision. In 1836, Truth became the first Black to win a slander action against whites. At the 1851 Women's Convention in Akron, Ohio, her powerful "Ain't I a Woman" speech awed even detractors.

Andermahr, Sonya, Carol Wolkowitz and Terry Lovell. __A Concise Glossary of Feminist__ __Theory__. 1st ed.Great Britain:Arnold, 1997. Berger, John. __Ways of Seeing__. 1st.London: Penguin Books, 1972. Jones, Amelia. __The Feminism and Visual Culture Reader__. 1st.London: Routledge, 2003 Lukas, Scott. "Dual Objectified." __The Gender Ads__. 01 March 2006. 29 April 2008 <http://www.genderads.com/>. Mulvey, Laura. "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema." __Wikipedia__. 1975. 29 April 2008 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Male_gaze#Responses_to_.22male_gaze.22>. Pope, Rob. __The English Studies Book: An Introduction to Language, Literature and__ __Culture__. 2nd edition. London and New York: Routledge, 2006. (**ESB**)